Evidence Library
Comprehensive data charts, academic papers, and statistical analysis on the impact of social media on children and adolescents.
Enforcement gaps of age assurance in tested digital services
This chart illustrates the discrepancy between the legal policies of digital services and the technical reality, in several apps and websites tested. Although 62% of tested platforms (517 out of 832) explicitly prohibit children under the age of 13 in their terms of service, almost a third, 32% of these (164 out of 517) offer no mechanism to prevent underage access whatsoever. The remaining 68% of the tested platforms use at least one age assurance mechanism, the most commonly employed being: self-declaration, age verification or age estimation. The distribution of these methods is presented in Chart n. 81
Estimated Probabilities of 15-Year-Olds Experiencing Poor Mental Health (Anxiety) by Gender and Time Spent on Social Media (2022)
The chart presents the results of a regression analysis based on countries that took both the ICT and the well-being PISA 2022 survey modules: Hungary, Ireland, Slovenia and Spain, covering a representative sample of 40,102 15-year-old students in 1,743 schools in Europe. It indicates that the correlation between time spent using social media and mental health is relatively consistent across genders, with both male and female adolescents reporting higher rates of depression and anxiety as social media usage increases. Yet, other factors other than time spent, or combinations of multiple factors, are likely to influence the relationship between the use of social media and mental health outcomes.
Estimated Probabilities of 15-Year-Olds Experiencing Poor Mental Health (Depression) by Gender and Time Spent on Social Media (2022)
The chart presents the results of a regression analysis based on countries that took both the ICT and the well-being PISA 2022 survey modules: Hungary, Ireland, Slovenia and Spain, covering a representative sample of 40,102 15-year-old students in 1,743 schools in Europe. It indicates that the correlation between time spent using social media and mental health is relatively consistent across genders, with both male and female adolescents reporting higher rates of depression and anxiety as social media usage increases. Yet, other factors other than time spent, or combinations of multiple factors, are likely to influence the relationship between the use of social media and mental health outcomes.
Experience and frequency of potentially harmful online content, by country (Base: All children 10–16)
This dataset from the 2026 EU Kids Online comparative study provides European policymakers, who are debating platform regulation and social media restrictions, with critical empirical evidence by mapping children's self-reported annual exposure to seven key categories of harmful content. Across the 19 surveyed nations, exposure to severe risks is widespread: gory or violent images are the most common form of harm (40% on average across Europe), followed closely by content that encourages eating disorders (39%), self-harm (37%), and dangerous viral challenges/dares (36%). Narratives encouraging substance use (33%), adult pornography (27%), and suicide methods (25%) are also seen by substantial minorities of children, demonstrating that the systemic dissemination of risk material by algorithms is the norm rather than the exception. Cross-national disparities highlight significant geographic variation in exposure. Children in Belgium, the Czech Republic, and Malta report the highest exposure rates across almost all categories of harm. For example, 65% of Belgian young people see gory or violent imagery, and 56% see self-harm content. This is compared to 28% and 25%, respectively, in Serbia. Furthermore, extreme risks such as suicide instruction affect 45% of children in Malta and 39% in Belgium, while body image risks are most prevalent in Poland (55%) and the Czech Republic (54%).
Experience and frequency of potentially harmful online content, by country (Base: All children 10–16) - European Average
This dataset from the EU Kids Online 2026 comparative study provides European policymakers with essential baseline information by mapping children's annual self-reported exposure to seven key categories of harmful content. On average across the European Union, exposure to severe risks is strikingly widespread, with gory or violent images (40%) and body image content encouraging extreme thinness (39%) being the main culprits. Self-harm instructions are seen by 37% of children, dangerous challenges and dares are seen by 36%, and substance use narratives are seen by 33%. Furthermore, a significant proportion of European children encounter adult pornography (27%) and explicit suicide methods (25%).
Exposure to Misinformation (2022)
This chart shows the percentage of individuals who have seen untrue or doubtful information or content on internet news sites or social media, in 2022, across 22 European member states, EEA partners (Norway, Iceland), and Switzerland. Reported exposure to misinformation ranges from 34.5% in Greece to a high of 70.7% in the Netherlands. A clear regional trend emerges: Northern European and Nordic nations, including Finland (69.8%), Sweden (64.7%), and the Netherlands (70.7%), report the highest levels of exposure, while Southern European nations, specifically Greece (34.5%) and Italy (37.4%), report significantly lower encounters with doubtful information.
Exposure to Misinformation: Breakdown by Age Group (2022)
This chart shows the percentage of individuals who have seen untrue or doubtful information or content on internet news sites or social media in 2022, disaggregated by age groups (16-24, 25-54/64, and 55/65+) in Europe. The data reveal a stark "generational information gap" within the European digital space, with the youngest demographic (16-24) consistently reporting the highest exposure to doubtful content across every territory. Among this youth group, exposure to misinformation ranges from 41.6% in Greece to a peak of 80.7% in the Netherlands, suggesting that in highly digitised markets, encounter rates with doubtful information are nearly universal for young people.
Functionalities Linked to Exposure of Harmful Content (11-17years old)
This chart from the Ofcom Children’s Online Safety Tracker 2025 identifies the technical features through which children in the UK (aged 11–17) encounter harmful content. It compares data from before and after the implementation of the UK Online Safety Act and Ofcom’s Children’s Codes. Despite new 'Safety-by-Design' mandates specifically targeting the re-engineering of algorithmic feeds, the data reveal that scrolling on personalised feeds (35%) remains the primary functionality through which young people are exposed to digital harm. A significant trend emerges in the shift towards 'secondary' social spaces. While exposure via feeds remained relatively stable, exposure through platform comments increased significantly, rising from 14% to 21%. This suggests that, although regulators have focused heavily on the 'push' of recommender systems, the 'human layer' of peer-to-peer interaction in comments has become a growing risk vector. Conversely, the data shows a statistically significant decrease in intentional search behaviour, which fell to just 1%, suggesting that new safety duties have been successful in making harmful content harder to find through search queries.
Gender Differences in Civic Knowledge
This chart illustrates gender disparities in civic knowledge across different countries, as revealed by the 2022 ICCS results. The Y-axis represents the advantage that girls have over boys in terms of scale points. The data reveal a universal gender gap in civic knowledge, with girls outperforming boys in every surveyed nation. The international average difference is 26 scale points. A significant regional trend emerges, with countries in Northern and Eastern Europe reporting the highest disparities. Bulgaria (41 points), Sweden (37 points) and Norway (36 points) show a female advantage that is significantly higher than the international average. In contrast, the gender gap is significantly narrower in countries such as Spain (17 points) and France (13 points). Interestingly, the difference between boys and girls was found to be statistically insignificant in the Netherlands (10 points) and Colombia (6 points).
General perception of safety and communication online, by country (Base: All children 10–16)
These data from the EU Kids Online 2026 comparative study evaluate European children's subjective feelings of safety, their sense of agency, and their comfort with interpersonal interactions in digital spaces. The data offer key insights into how young people perceive their own online environments. The strongest overall sentiment across the 19 surveyed nations is individual protective agency: 62% of European children report knowing what to do if they encounter negative behaviour online, demonstrating widespread self-efficacy regarding basic digital coping mechanisms (e.g. blocking, reporting or ignoring). However, fewer than half of European young people (48%) explicitly report feeling safe online, revealing a 14-percentage-point gap between knowing how to handle negative interactions and actually feeling secure in the digital environment. There are important geographical differences in perceptions of online safety across member states. Subjective feelings of safety are highest in Ireland (73%), Finland (66%), and Norway (66%), but are much lower in Central and Southern Europe. The lowest figures are found in Italy (19%), followed by Poland (31%), Slovakia (33%), Luxembourg (36%), the Czech Republic (36%), and Romania (36%). Regarding online identity expression, digital platforms serve as an important alternative space for self-expression for a significant proportion of young people. Almost a quarter of children (23%) find it easier to be themselves online than in person, and 22% discuss different topics online than in person. Meanwhile, 14% feel 'powerful' online. Nevertheless, intimate self-disclosure remains uncommon, with only 9% of children reporting that they share personal information online that they would avoid discussing in person (this figure falls to just 2% in Ireland). These findings emphasise that children do not view the internet as unmanageable. A clear majority feel they have the basic coping strategies they need. Rather, safety concerns stem from broader issues in the online climate, including low perceived interpersonal kindness and inconsistent platform safeguards.